STRUCTURE OF GADOLINIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism " (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). Here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Naturally occurring gadolinium '('Gd) is composed of 6stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd,157Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and 1radioisotope, 152Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant (24.84%natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been observed; only lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been set experimentally. Thirty radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being alpha-decaying 152Gd (naturally occurring) with a half-life of 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd with a half-life of 1.79×106years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 74.7 years. The majority of these have half-lives less than 24.6 seconds. Gadolinium isotopes have 10 metastable isomers. The primary decay mode at atomic weights lower than the most abundant stable isotope, 158Gd, is electron capture, and the primary mode at higher atomic weights is beta decay. The primary decay products for isotopes of weights lower than 158Gd are the element Eu (europium) isotopes and the primary products at higher weights are the element Tb (terbium) isotopes. Comparing the gadolinium -128 of 64 protons and 64 neutrons (even number) with samarium-124 of 62 protons and 62 neutrons (even number ) we conclude that the structure of Gd-128 has the same high symmetry as that of Sm-124. ( See my STRUCTURE OF Sm-144 ). In general since the additional p64n64 is a vertical system with S =0, the structure of Gd-128 has S =0 with six horizontal planes of opposite spins giving S = 0 like the +HP1, -HP2, +HP3, -HP4, +HP5 and -Hp6, in which we add the two horizontal square like the -HSQ and +HSQ having the deuterons p37n37 and p39n39, with S =-2 and p38n38, and p40n40 with S = +2 giving a total S =0. (See the diagram of my STRUCTURE OF Gd-154 ). ' ' ' '''STRUCTURE OF Gd-134, Gd-136, Gd-138, Gd-140, Gd-142, Gd-144, Gd-146, Gd-148, Gd-150, Gd-152, Gd-154, Gd-156, Gd-158, AND Gd-160 WITH S = 0 ' For understanding the structure of the above nuclides with S =0 you must read my STRUCTURE OF Gd-154 . Using the following diagram of Gd-128 we see that in the presence of even number of extra neutrons with opposite spins we get the structures of the above nuclides. For example the unstable Gd-152 with S = 0 has 24 extra neutrons of opposite spins . These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Gd-154, Gd-156, Gd-158, and Gd-160 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. ' ' '''DIAGRAM OF GADOLINIUM-128 FORMING BLANK POSITIONS This diagram presents the structure of Gd-128 with S = 0 because it has 6 horizontal planes with opposite spins giving S =0 like the +HP1, -HP2, +HP3, -HP4, and two horizontal squares giving S = 0 like the +HSQ and -HSQ n40......p40........n ' n......... p38.......n38 +HSQ' ' n31………p12.........n12.......p32' ' p31........n11.........p11…… n32 -HP6' ' n........p29.........n10.........p10…… n30' ' n29…… p9..........n9 …….p30.........n +HP5' ' n61....p47.......n27.........p8..........n8.........p28........... n48......p62' ' p64....n45...........p27........n7.........p7........n28..........p46...........n63 -HP4 ' ' p61......n47..........p25.........n6.........p6..........n26...........p48.....n62' ' n64....p45..........n25……p5..........n5………p26.......n46 .........p63 +HP3' ' n23………p4........n4………….p24..............n' ' n......p23…….....n3……….p3………..n24 -HP2' ' p21.........n2………p2............n22' ' n21........p1........n1.........p22] +HP1' ' n.........p37......n37 ' ' n39......p39........n -HSQ' STRUCTURE OF Gd-162, Gd-164, Gd-166, AND Gd-168 WITH S = 0 ''' Similarly the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on the same structure of Gd-128 with S =0. For example the unstable Gd-62 with S = 0 has 34 extra neutrons of opposite spins but the two extra neutrons than those of the stable Gd-160 (in the absence of blank positions) makes single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. In the same way the more extra neutrons than those of Gd-160 of the Gd-164, Gd-166, and Gd-168 make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. '''STRUCTURE OF Gd-135, Gd-139, Gd-147, Gd-149, Gd-151, Gd-153, Gd-155, Gd-157, Gd-159, Gd-161, Gd-165, Gd-167, AND Gd-169 HAVING ODD NUMBER OF EXTRA NEUTRONS WITH NEGATIVE SPINS For understanding the structure of the above nuclides you must read my STRUCTURE OF Gd-155 . They give negative spins due to the odd number of extra neutrons giving negative spins. For example the Gd-153 with S =-3/2 of 25 extra neutrons has 11 extra neutrons of positive spins and 14 extra neutrons of negative spins giving S = -3/2. That is S = 0 + 11(+1/2) + 14(-1/2) = -3/2 Here the 25 extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Gd-155 and Gd-157 with S = -3/2, the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable nuclides of Gd-159, Gd-161, Gd-167, and Gd-169 the extra neutrons more than those of the stable Gd-157 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Gd-137, Gd-141, Gd-143, Gd-145, AND Gd-163 HAVING ODD NUMBER OF EXTRA NEUTRONS WITH POSITIVE SPINS Here we have positive spins of the above unstable nuclides due to the odd number of extra neutrons giving positive spins. For example the unstable Gd-145 with S = +1/2 of 17 extra neutrons has 9 extra neutrons of positive spins and 8 extra neutrons of negative spins giving S = +1/2. That is S = 0 + 9(+1/2) + 8(-1/2) = +1/2 Whereas the unstable Gd-163 with S = +7/2 of 35 extra neutrons has 21 extra neutrons of positive spins and 14 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 + 21(+1/2) + 14(-1/2) = +7/2 Note that it has 6 more extra neutrons than those of the stable Gd-157 which make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts